Ganz anders als das Verb „reparieren“ lässt sich „aufarbeiten“ verstehen. Beide Verben beschreiben Prozesse, die schon mal einige Zeit dauern können. Manche dieser Prozesse haben eine scheinbar nicht enden wollende Persistenz. Anders als Autos und Maschinen allgemein, können wir Geschichte nicht reparieren, bestenfalls Versuche einer Entschädigung machen. Aufarbeiten von geschichtlichen Ereignissen, Kriegen, Menschenrechtsverletzungen und Unrecht kann viel schwieriger sein. Rechtsausübung von Unrecht, das in historisch gültige Gesetze gefasst ist, gilt als rechtspolitisch wenig angreifbar. Moralische Bedenken späterer Generationen, beispielsweise, sind wie der historische Gegenstand selbst, zu kontextualisieren.
Diese geschichtswissenschaftliche Herangehensweise an historisches Material hat seit einiger Zeit eine zusätzliche verlegerische Heimat gefunden. Der Kugelberg Verlag, Verlag für historische Sozialforschung verbindet einen biografischen Ansatz der Aufarbeitung von Geschichte mit einer organisationssoziologischen Perspektive der mittleren Führungsebene als Funktionselite. Zusammengenommen ergibt sich aus dieser Verbindung von Mikro- und Meso-ebene des Nationalsozialismus eine wichtige Ergänzung der Aufarbeitung der Schrecken und Verbrechen der Nationalsozialisten. Das Büchlein von Dr. Wolfgang Proske „Kleine Herrgötter! Die Kreisleiter der Nazis in Bayern“ ist bereits in der 5. Auflage im Kugelbergverlag erschienen. Die sorgfältig recherchierten Beiträge bauen auf den Arbeiten zu den umfangreicheren 20! Bänden „Täter, Helfer, Trittbrettfahrer – NS-Belastete“ in Bayern und Baden-Württemberg auf. Die bereits mehr als 250 AutorInnen, versammelt in diesen Bänden zu den biografischen Recherchen, vereint ein einmaliges, zu Recht mehrfach prämiertes Aufarbeitungsprojekt von lokalen Geschichtsinteressierten und -werkstätten.
Die Multiplikatoreneffekte solcher „Citizen Science“-Projekte unterstreicht die Bedeutung von „bottom-up“ Vorgehensweisen. Erst die Zusammenarbeit von diesen vielen AutorInnen ermöglicht die Zusammenschau und genügend tiefe Einblicke in den Aufbau und die Funktionsweise der menschenverachtenden NS-Maschinerie. Geschicktes Infiltrieren von allen möglichen Machtpositionen in früher Zeit schnürte das Netz des Terrors immer dichter. Daraus ergibt sich eine immens wichtige Lektion für das Überleben von Demokratien: Wehret den Anfängen! Keine Freiheit und Machtpositionen den Feinden der Freiheit! 
Rhetoricae artis
“Die Kunst der Rhetorik und der positiven Fähigkeit” ist eine kleine Wissenschaft. So hieß es bereits 1475 in dem von Guillaume Rardif veröffentlichten Buchdruck aus dem “Atelier du Soufflet Vert”. (BnF, Réserve des livres rares, Rés. X-1118). Als Teil der Ausstellung zum Buckdruck entnehmen wir 5 wichtige Hinweise für die Kunst der öffentlichen Rede: (1) inventio = (Er-)findungskraft, (2) dispositio = Anordnung, Gliederung, (3) elocutio = Ausdrucksweise, Stil, (4) memoria = Erinnerungsvermögen, (5) pronunciatio = Urteilskraft.
Ein kritzelnder Leser hat mit Bleistift die 6 Teile angefügt. Exordium = Einleitung, Narratio = Erzählung, Sachverhalt, partitio = Einteilung, und schließlich die dialektik mit Confirmatio, Rufusation, Conclusio. Abweichungen von diesem rhetorischen Schema sind noch immer selten. Das galt wohl seit dem 15-ten Jahrhundert schon für Predigten und wissenschaftliche Vorträge. Alles altes Latein, oder was? Die heute übliche “Elevator-speech” folgt anderen Regeln. Die Aufmerksamkeitsökonomie und Flut der Informationen erzwingt viel kürzere Redezeiten. Die Nachhaltigkeit der Botschaft wird anders erzeugt. Bildlichkeit ist Trumpf in Erscheinung und Auftritt. Auch das will gelernt sein. Die Bücher damals waren selbst ästhetische Kunstwerke und dennoch Arbeitsbücher, leider nur für sehr wohlhabende Studierende. 
Feuer im Wald
Das sogenannte grüne Lunge kann immer öfter ihre wichtige Funktion der Klimaregulation nicht mehr wahrnehmen. Waldbrände begleiten den Klimawandel. Bereits 2018 gab es ein großes Feuer im Wald bei Paris. Im “forêt de Sénart” in der Nähe der Städte Montgeron, Yerres und Brunoy (nahe Paris) hat sich der Wald seit dem Feuer im Hitzejahr 2018 noch nicht erholt. Geld für Reparatur der Schäden fehlt und so lässt die notwendige Aufforstung auf sich warten. Der Verlust der Biodiversität durch den Brand lässt sich schwer bemessen. Brandrodung, gängige Praxis im Amazonasgebiet, hinterlässt auch bei uns mehrere ungewollte Folgewirkungen. Die Bewirtschaftung des Waldes hat die Schäden abgeschrieben, aber Zukunftsinvestitionen lassen auf sich warten. So heizt sich die Region Ile de France eben weiter auf und Millionen Käufer von Klimaanlagen. Die befördern in naher Zukunft das Wirtschaftswachstum, aber beschleunigen den Klimawandel. Wir wissen, dass es so nicht weitergehen darf. Nur der Wille, wirklich etwas daran zu ändern, fehlt an vielen Orten. Weiterso, wenn es kein Weiterso geben darf, ist die Schizophrenie unseres und des letzten Jahrhunderts. Lernen im und vom Wald ist nötig. Das ist unsere Lebensgrundlage. 
Bundesarchiv
Bundesarchive gibt es kilometerweise. Auffinden und Zurechtfinden in Archiven ist eine Vorliebe von historisch Interessierten. Eine Soziologie des Berufs „Historian“ muss wohl noch geschrieben werden. Die Pforte, das Gelände und die Eingangshalle des Bundesarchivs in Berlin-Lichterfelde sind für einige einladend, für andere naja, belastend oder gar belastet. Architektonisch an eine Kaserne der 1930er Jahre erinnernd, ist ein gewisses historisches Umfeld eventuell eine Einstimmung auf eine bevorstehende Recherche. Das freundliche Personal hilft unterstützend über die Registrierung und die Orientierung zu den Beständen hinweg. Sofort ist, wie beim wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchs, die Eingrenzung der Forschungsfrage von Nöten. Die Findbücher, die sortierte Ausdrucke der elektronischen Datenbank „Invenio“ darstellen, lassen einen die Vielfalt der Archive erahnen. Eine einfache soziologische Fragestellung „Homogamie in der NS-Zeit“, also die Praxis von Heirat von Personen mit vergleichbarem sozialem Status, vor während und unmittelbar im Anschluss an die NS-Zeit, verlangt mehrere Datenzugänge. Konstruktion des Zugangs von Männer- oder Frauenseite. Zentraler Zugang geht zunächst über die Bestandsdatei NS 1 „Reichsschatzmeister der NSDAP“. Aus den nationalsozialistischen Frauengruppen entstand am 1.10.1931 die NS-Frauenschaft. Seit dem 29.3.1935 genoss die NS-Frauenschaft den Status einer Gliederung der Partei unter der Leitung von Gertrud Scholtz-Klink. Der Bestand umfasst 3,5 Millionen Aufnahmeanträge und ist in Berlin-Lichterfelde einsehbar. Neben den Mitgliedschaften sind auch besondere Vermerke zu den Gebäuden und Grundstücken der NS-Frauenschaft (BArch/NS 1 5.2.6.4) bspw. im Gau Berlin dokumentiert (BArch/NS 1 2504 und 724). Eine Lebensverlaufsstudie ist da schwierig zu konstruieren. Ein Geburtskohortenansatz dennoch eine interessante Möglichkeit, eventuell auf die Muster von Netzwerken hinzuweisen. Parteimitgliedschaften, Vereine, Verbünde und ihre Rituale wurden scheinbar der Propaganda untergeordnet. Eine These, die es zu beweisen gilt. Die interreligiöse Andrews Chapel auf dem Gelände (im Hintergrund) lässt dann vielleicht wieder zur Ruhe kommen. 
Monitor SDGs7+
The complete monitoring of the SDGs of the UN for global development shows a surprisingly large coverage of topics. The search function is indiscriminate of some contradictions or returns the same entry twice like in sustainable industry. However, the simple check reveals frequent and less frequent entries. Entries 1 = Poverty, 6 = Water and 14 + 15 = Life on Land and in Water received less attention. The agenda for the coming weeks is set. 
Menschen
Im Bundesarchiv in Berlin sind einige Fotos zu einer Variante der Vermessung von Menschen ausgestellt. Nicht nur in den Kolonialregionen wurden Menschen zu rassenideologischen Studien vermessen. Die Kurzbeschreibung dazu und die 2 Bilder reichen, um diese scheinbar wissenschaftliche Praxis zu dokumentieren. Zurecht wird auf den Skandal mit der weiteren Verwendung dieser Daten bis 1981 hingewiesen. Es gab Kontinuitäten von Wissenschaft die heute noch erschrecken lassen. Kritischer Umgang mit jeglicher Art von Daten gehört zu dem Curriculum guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis. Diese darf nicht vor ethischen Fragen Halt machen, auch wenn das die weitere Verwendung der Information blockiert. Der Kinofilm “Der vermessene Mensch” hat dafür erneut sensibilisiert. Ethnologen und Ärzte wurden vielfach in den Dienst von Ideologien gestellt oder haben sie willentlich vorangetrieben, oftmals aus persönlichen Beweggründen. Skandale in und um Archive gehören zur Weltgeschichte, wie die geschichtliche Erkenntnis selbst. Mediale Verbreitung und Bestätigung von Klischees werden schon lange verurteilt, aber mit wenig Erfolg, wie der Deutschlandfunk Kultur selbst berichtet (Link Sendung Fazit). Die Kitas und Schulen haben ihre Hausaufgaben ebenfalls schlecht gemacht (Link). Wo ein Wille ist, ist meistens auch ein Weg, aber wenn der Wille fehlt aufgrund von Stereotypen wird sich wenig ändern.
Repair 2
Ever since the visit to the exhibition “Care, Repair, Heal” at the Martin Gropiusbau in Berlin the image of flying protheses rests with me. Repairing the human body is feasible in many fantastic ways. The inner wounds, however, are less visible and sometimes hurting even more. In recognition of the thousands of victims again in the Russian war on Ukraine’s territory and the atrocities causes by mines to injure humans, we have to assist in caring, repairing and healing. This has not changed since the Great War or the Nazi-induced mass murder and mutilations. Humanity is unable to bann such landmines despite international conventions trying to achieve this.
The strong image produced by the protheses as clouds in the sky (Kadar Attia) remind us of the lasting effects of war. Images we had associated with the mutilated soldiers and civilians of the 2nd world war, many still around us in the 60s or 70s, are coming back to Europe. Writing about the 20th century, Aurélien Bellanger described in words a similar traumatising vision of flying protheses in his story of the lonely poet and philosopher. We cannot repair history, but we can work towards reducing useless additional suffering. It is part of the absurdities of our world that technology has created masterpieces to assist us and reduce suffering, but at the same time technology is applied to create the worst suffering as well. Rather than thinking of this relationship as 2 sides of the same coin, I prefer to hope for dialectic evolution towards a better synthesis solution using enforceable international law. Yes, I still have a dream! … 
Technology
Over the 20th century technology has pushed forward in many fields. As there were huge investments needed the public campaigns to support new technology without much further reflection of potential consequences have pulled many western societies into risky technologies. Except the Club of Rome there were very few to question the naïve beliefs that technological change will make societies rich and potentially even more equal. The recent report “Climate Inequality Report 2023: Unequal Contributions to Climate Change” has debunked both of these claims. More flying across the planet, particularly short city hopping, has allowed few persons to reap the benefits of the jet-set world, but contributed to climate change in excessive quantities. This is a fact when we compare major world regions among each other as well as within each country. It has to be the wealthy countries that have to shoulder the biggest share of the costs. It has to be the wealthy that pay higher contributions for their pollution. Society has to reign in technology more than ever before. Moreover, we still have to get the income and pollution distribution organised in a better way. It is not only an implementation challenge, but the major question of the 21st century to repair the damage largely caused throughout the 20th century. 
20th Century
The 20th century has told us many lessons. History does not repeat itself, but it appears that new variants of old themes keep coming back. Slowly passing the century like a movie in decades instead of episodes, we witness socio-emotional tides. The first decade, the 00s intensify the beginning of urban planning and social revolutions. The 10s show the arousal and subsequent extinction of masses of people in trenches. The 20s were described as the Carefree Twenties. In the 30s we observed the rising tides of fascist organisations followed shortly afterwards by the disastrous 40s. After the Shoah and the World War the 50s were fabulous viewed from the U.S. and Western Europe. The 60s propagated sex, drugs and rock n’ roll spreading across continents. The wild 70s became almost inescapable through the continued rise of mass media. The 80s were depicted as the colourful 80s as the 2 previous decades had set the scene for psychedelic colours. The 1990s have been coined as the gay 90s by some. Coming out as a gay person became easier and Western societies more sensitive and open to diversity. The back cover of the recent publication by Aurélien Bellanger “Le vingtième siècle” (The 20th century) speaks of the book as “roman polyphonique virtuose”. I look back on the 20th century as “polyphone” in many respects. It would be an illusion to believe we can only keep the nice sounding harmonies without the tensions or dissonances. 
20th Century
With 22 years into the 21st century it’s about time to dare to write the history of the 20th century. This is in many ways a steep challenge. Summarizing across so many decades (20s, 30s …) has to focus on a few events (wars) or topics (hate) that serve to characterize the century. Of course, intrinsic to the matter is the comparison to other centuries as well. Therefore, the task might be left to great historians only. Well other approaches are feasible as well and “Le vingtième siècle” by author and journalist Aurélien Bellanger constitutes a literary version of the time span of a hundred years corresponding to the 20th century. Bellanger chooses Walter Benjamin as philosophical anchor, both his works and life history. But as this history describes maybe the first half of the century he extends the reach of Benjamin into the 2nd half by introducing a “history-repeating” character into the narration. A literary circle interested in Benjamin as philosopher of the 20th century inquires about another disappearance of a poet and philosopher. Whereas the 19th century literature was full of romantic drama and “Freitod”, the 20th century has characterising deaths out of despair. Walter Benjamin is a prominent example of this. The solitude of the democraticly minded critic who ends in despair of the rising tide of fascism. Despite his premature death trying to escape the persecution of Nazi Germany, his writings live on beyond the fascists attempt to erradicate his critical thoughts. Loneliness of writers and poets in the 2nd half of the century is of another kind, but still frequently marked by isolation. Even fantastic libraries like the 2 sites of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF) houses many artists and researchers literally lost in archives. Most of them escape tragedy by publishing splendid pieces of their own creative minds. The “economy of attention” allows only very short time slots of recognition. The “Entzauberung der Welt”, the demystification of the world no longer allows for secrets and splendour at the end of the 20th century.
Long exchanges of long letters were an intellectual ritual at the beginning of the century subsequently lost to ever shorter and faster email exchanges. Acceleration is the time stamp of the 20th century and time for interpersonal exchange and group formation or circles of artists as well as scientists. Aurélien Bellanger achieves a splendid masterpiece that invites us to reflect on our recent past from a philosophical perspective. The philosophy of language is an interesting angle to choose. A cubist perspective asks us to add other angles to describe and analyse the prism of the 20th century. 
Spring2023
Spring has sprung, a little bit early in 2023. On the 16th of March in the vicinity of Paris, where Caillebotte designed his impressionist garden. It is still 4 weeks until Easter. The spring flowers will hardly survive until then. Hence, we prepare for an early summer, nice because of less heating, but the vegetation is suffering in the region due to the lack of rain. Hay fever for millions of persons will start early this year as well. The damages from a fire in the nearby forest “Sénart” from 2018 have still not really disappeared. It is expensive and needs a lot of workers, equipment and knowhow to avoid the same old mistakes of planting mono-cultures of trees again. When will they ever learn, when will they ever learn.
Caillebotte
Gustave Caillebotte has done it again. Son of a great beneficiary of war efforts himself. He started with support from his father’s fortune on a painting career. Soon after his father’s death, he joined the group of “alternative artists”, later called the impressionists in France. On the 1.2.2023 the Musée d’Orsay acquired a key painting of Caillebotte for 43 Million € with the help of a donation by LVMH. Where does the hype come from? A catalogue of the exhibition of the painter “Gustave Caillebotte, The painter’s eye” from the National Gallery of Art in Washington from 2015 established Caillebotte again as a key person of the impressionist movement. Rich in diversity of motifs, the painter and supporter of the impressionists (Philantropist) has foreseen the challenge photography could bring to painting. The painter’s eye is well explained by Michael Marrinan (pp.22) in the catalogue. In fact, the spatial depth of the views of the streets of Paris is a precursor to many photographers and movies of several decades later. Caillebotte’s images of Paris depict well the mixed feelings about a daunting city size and the isolation of people captured in their own little inner circles with little communication despite or because of the noisy surroundings. Misty atmospheres allow to focus on impressions. Almost meditative walking in the city is his modern topic. Reflecting on painting as profession versus painting as artist is somehow an impressionist’s sociology of professions. Gustave Caillebotte did not have to paint for money and he was aware of social class differences as son of a factory owner. It did not spoil his artistic view with social facts, but rather tried to reveal the intrinsic beauty not only of landscapes, but ordinary working people. Other impressionists painted beautiful ballerinas, Caillebotte painted workers and sometimes more challenging parts of Paris in his early years. With climate change near Caillebotte’s home in full swing, we shall “adore” the rainy days in Paris even more. And in the countryside, too. The painter’s eye reveals a visionary view of the modern and post-modern world. 
Flotow Stradella
Die Oper Stradella von Flotow wurde in 2006 eingehend besprochen. Sarah Hibbert hat ein immer wieder aktuelles Thema: Wie sollten vorherige Stilepochen in der Aufführungspraxis und der Komposition behandelt werden? Die Legende über den Sänger Stradella, der einem Fürsten die Braut ausgespannt hat und deswegen ermordet werden sollte, bietet einen interessanten (sex and crime) Plot. Wegen der Gesangskunst des Verführers, wollten die bestellten .Auftragsmörder den bezaubernden Sänger nicht töten. Tatort ist der Auftritt der Sängers in einer Kathedrale. Fritz von Flotow und Louis Niedermeyer haben beide fast zeitgleich eine Version des Librettos vertont. Es stellt sich nun die Frage, wie denn am besten der historische Stoff aus dem 17-ten Jahrhundert darzubieten ist. Beide Komponisten komponierten im Stil der romantischen Oper des 19-ten Jahrhunderts. Flotow wählt eine stärker historisierende Variante der mittelalterlichen Musik der Stradella-themen in seiner Oper. Die Klangfarben der mittelalterlichen Kirchenmusik passen aber nur schwerlich zu den Erwartungen des zeitgenössischen (1830er) Opernpublikums. Daraus resultiert,en eine spannende kompositorische Aufgabe und entsprechende Herausforderung für die Aufführung des Werks. Darüber hinaus müssen noch Unterschiede zwischen der ersten mehr populären Form der Oper für Paris (Vaudeville) und der später in Hamburg uraufgeführten Version der Flotowschen Stradella Fassung beachtet werden. Historisierung mit Anlehnungen an Gesänge von Palestrina sind nicht der Geschmack eines jeden im Publikum und der Kritiker. Grund genug, in die Opern mal wieder reinzuhören. Den Tenor, die Arie “Jungfrau Maria” singend, hätte ich wahrscheinlich auch nicht als Auftragsmörder töten können. Rolando Villazón ist darin recht überzeugend.
Quelle: Hibbert, S. 2006. Murder in the Cathedral. Stradella, Musical Power and Performing the Past in 1830s Paris. Music & Letters Vol 87 Nr. 4. doi:10.1093/ml/gcl081 (Photos, KS Kathedrale in Meaux, F).
History
Approaching history with a personal touch is a powerful way of attracting persons into learning about others and themselves. The use of some personal belongings as part of a “history box” can be the beginning of an historical journey into the 30s, 40s, 50s or any other decade. It is an empowering tool for learners of all ages. Digging deeper into personal histories, societal constellations and societal change becomes alive through tiny little things. Communicating about these artefacts blends old and new narratives, just as much as the life courses of the “common woman or man” with the celebrities of the time. “Getting personal” is the hype in the time when social media want to define our life though endless nudging. Reflecting on origins is not what we tend to do, PhotoAPPs create retrospects for us, take it, or leave it. History is catching up on us. The fashion world reinvents history on a seasonal basis. After all, a bag is a bag is a bag. Or is it different from the one a person took to Auschwitz.
Alkoholismus
Alkohol ist eine Droge, da Alkohol abhängig machen kann. Die Bewusstseinsveränderungen können beachtliche bis extreme Ausmaße erreichen. Das wissen wir alle und zwar seit Jahrhunderten. Mäßigung bei Rauschmitteln ist nötig, aber schwer erlernbar. Etwas Genuss ist gesellschaftlich nicht nur toleriert, sondern gewollt zur Förderung der Geselligkeit. Zu viel Genuss beeinträchtigt meistens andere und wird dann zu einer schwierigen Problematik. Ärztinnen, Psychologinnen und andere Heilberufe stehen oft hilflos, wie auch das nahe familiäre Umfeld, vor dieser Situation. Selbst neuere Studien weisen darauf hin, dass die Versorgung dieser Patienten (UK), bestenfalls in der Hälfte der Fälle als gut einzustufen ist. Die Studie zu Großbritannien beschreibt gleichfalls die Krankheitsgeschichte und -versorgung als „eskalierende Tragödie“. Für die meisten anderen Länder liegen keine wirklich guten Daten vor, die weder einen Handlungsbedarf noch auf einen gesellschaftlichen Gestaltungswillen hindeuten würden.
Die Radiosendung zum Thema „Umgang mit Alkoholkranken“ und die Initiative von Sänger Max Mutzke, „Kindern suchtkranker Eltern eine Stimme geben“ beschreibt eindrücklich die generationsübergreifende Bedeutung von Alkoholkrankheit. Alkohol ist eben nicht nur das Problem der betroffenen Person. Ein ganzes Umfeld ist betroffen. Das Problem wächst sich meistens aus zu einer Problematik für das weitere familiäre Umfeld, Freundeskreise und ArbeitskollegInnen. Es ist erstaunlich, dass wir seit Jahrhunderten keinen anderen Umgang mit alkoholbasierten Rauschmitteln gefunden haben, als alles erlaubt oder alles verboten, außer der Altersbegrenzung für Kinder und beim Autofahren. Der Maler Bruegel sah das wohl ähnlich. Den St. Martinswein kann sich heute jeder im Laden um die Ecke selbst kaufen. Mäßigung im Umgang mit Drogen ist nach wie vor ein schwieriger Lernprozess, für Einzelne (Jordaens – Der König drinkt!), wie für die Gesellschaft. ( fast betrunkenes Video Alko VLC Bruegel MRBA Bruxelles.jpg zur Bildexploration).
Time5
The social sciences deal with time either as part of social theory and as part of social measurement in the broadest sense. The entry of time in “The encyclopedia of social theory” (Ritzer, 2006, p.837-41) reminds us that since the age of Augustinus, believing that time is a God-given concept, we have evolved with Kant’s notion of the “Ding an sich” that time exists within our experience, but also beyond our experience of it. It is Durkheim who sees time as a social institution and raises the issue of a social construction of the concept(s) of time. In the process of civilisation, Nobert Elias leads us to think of time as an evolving social process which allows us to reach higher levels of civilisations. Despite wars and other backlashes, the basic premise remains an eventual improvement on previous situations (Time 3). The phenomenological method applied by Husserl points at the “inner time consciousness” of persons, which finds its literary expression for example in Proust’s writings.
In addition to time as the object of social theories, we find frequent implicit use of concepts of time as a component of social theories. Life courses, social change, social mobility, social integration, learning, all these concepts are conceived with “time stamps” attached to the them. Their temporality, i.e. location in time and space, durations, sequential orders and interlinkages form huge fields of research. Whole societies have attempted to define when is the “normal”, “right” or “best” time to do something for the individual or the society as a whole. Social desirability is linked to time and space and varies accordingly. The 1960s probably were a decade where the questioning of social desirability was most obvious.
Social measurement of time and the location of social phenomena in time leads us to the empirical field of studying time or the treatment of time as a basic dimension in and of social processes. “The encyclopedia of social measurement” (Kempf-Leonard, 2005) list the sampling of time as a basic entry to the topic. Frequency of sampling, (yearly, quarterly), level of sampling (person, household, region, country), repeated surveys (prospective, retrospective) of same person or rotating samples of persons have their specific strengths and weaknesses. Analytical methods rely on the concepts of the measurement of time. It seems to be a fair observation that (Clarke and Granato, 2005, p.836) the future of time series analysis lies in the linkages to theory. After all, the 2 worlds of theory and empirical measurement are linked through the concept of time, despite the tendency to abstract from it or assuming a large overlap in the concept of time (and space) referred to. Clocks seems to be ticking differently in different places.
Image: Dali Paris. R. & N. Descharnes Salvador Dali Sculptures & Objects. Eccart. Ref. 615, page 238. 
Time4
»Tempus fugit» (Latin proverb) time is flying, or time is escaping us. This is a classical quote. Students of Latin come across it in language acquisition. “Carpe diem” make the most of the day, others responded. Some even raise it to a dogma of their existence. Whereas in classical times, time was more likely to be perceived as a linear concept (v = s x t), modern concepts discuss time as “acceleration” a nonlinear concept (a = v x t = s x t²) or higher order non-linearities even (time³). Social time is embedded in such concepts of time. At some moments we perceive time as running very slowly, at other instances as running fast or accelerating. The synchronisation of time for friends, a couple, a family, lives, within a society or between societies is the big challenge. We tend to use calendars to synchronize our time acknowledging that time might be running at different speed for different persons. We have invented rituals of synchronisation like celebrating birthdays, departures at work, retirements or relative to seasons, with corresponding seasonal greetings. In between these events time fluctuates with different speed for different persons. Commonly in a kind of superficial objectivity, time is running in the same second-, minute-, hour-, day-like fashion, but considering activities or experiences, the same time span is widely different across persons. A lot of intergenerational conflicts have their origins in this non-synchronicity of time across generations. Bernard Guy (2018) reminds us of the link of time and space, as in the equations above, common in classical physics, where we could replace s with the change of coordinates of 2 GPS-signals. This space – time relationship complicates our simple reference to time. We have become used to think in time zones across the planet or within continents, however, our imagination is a bit stretched by imagining others sleeping while we are terribly busy on the other side of the globe. Global production and logistic processes have integrated the time and space framework for just-in-time delivery and optimisation of processes. As mankind we are still having a hard time to think about time and spend years “à la recherche du temps perdu” (Proust manuscript image below, BnF Paris2023).
Guy, B. (2018). Parler d’accélération, c’est aussi dire comment nous comprenons le temps. Dans : Nicole Aubert éd., @ la recherche du temps: Individus hyperconnectés, société accélérée : tensions et transformations (pp. 111-123). Toulouse: Érès. 
60s
“Make love, not war”, is a summary slogan of all sorts of protests that have moved the sixties. With the spread of television impressive images caught attention no longer just locally, but almost across the whole world. With the inauguration of political debates on TV between Kennedy and Nixon, reaching millions of persons at once and images travelling borders faster than to translate text, spreading of new ideas and political actions was more rapid and more emotional. Commonly the 60s are described as the sex, drug and rock-n-roll period. But there is much more to it. Yes, the sex revolution got started and access to, as well as experimenting with, drugs became more widely spread. Music became a defining moment for young people from teenage years onwards. After Rock n Roll from the 50s, came the rock music and pop culture, which were able to bring together huge crowds of several hundred thousand party-goers. The Woodstock festival and hippie gatherings became a defining moment mainly for the young. Older generations still battled for affordable housing and the “Great society”, as a large-scale anti-poverty program was called.
The phenomenon of the Beatles co-defined the 60s. The Beatles captured more than just one generation with their popular songs and iconic style. Mary Quant, attributed to have designed the mini-skirt, equally co-defined a period with a visual provocation to conservative life-styles. In parallel, the sixties saw the civil rights movement grow, Black Power succeeding with peaceful actions more widespread attention, leading to the abolition of openly racist practices. The peaceful movements and happenings, however, had to face the deadly attacks on J.F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King during the 60s. The whole decade was influential in the field of education as well. Based on a new spirit of altruism and happiness combined with, but also beyond religious feelings, new forms of living together, sharing and the common good were tried out. Anti-authoritarian educational practices were influential beyond the 60s.
Books covering the 60s are manifold. In addition to Arthur Marwick’s impressive, multi-faceted volume “The sixities”, I enjoyed the book by David Burner “Making peace with the 60s”, especially his approach to burn some received wisdoms about the 60s, namely the restriction of it to those 10 years. “The withering away of philosophy”, the beginnings of postmodernism and a theory-driven or conceptual approach to the decade, amongst other topics, is the merit of Fredric Jameson (1984, p.192). “The 60s without apology” is a programmatic title well worth thinking about seriously as the editors and authors did.
Besides the ecological disasters of the 60s already, (nuclear, oil and wars), Mini Cooper cars, Lava Lamps as well as Blow or Ball Chairs, Barbies, Frisbees, Brigitte Bardot and Pippi Longstocking (Patricia Massó, 2010), all were dressed to impress. “The 60s without apology” by a group of editors nicely summarises the review of the 60s and their lasting effects on us, for better and/or worse. 2 generations later in 2023 youth is again threatening mass mobilisation in France as depicted in LeMonde 4.2.2023. It is a kind of “déjà vu experience”. 
Time3
The evolution of time is fascinating as research topic. Both in theoretical as well as empirical approaches. Beyond the precise measurement of time and the use of time in measuring working time, which intensified during the industrial revolution, we witness continued struggles over the length and the organisation of working time. The 30+X hours week working time could be reorganised into a 4-days week to improve work-life balances for millions of people. The effects are not only on employees directly concerned, but also on their families and/or households involved.
The changing perception of time (as being short of time) and its evolution over time needs huge surveys collected over time (known as “Time use studies”). Inequality over the life course remains an issue with a persistent gender bias. Unhealthy and excessive overtime work is still a problem, usually negated by upper ranks in hierarchies.
Let us start to imagine different concepts of time to maybe one day overcome the shortcomings of our current understanding and use of time. Usually, time is considered a linear concept, one day follows another day and so on. Time, depicted as an arrow or a horizontal axis in graphical representations, is helpful for most processes we observe. If our aim is to explain a social process which evolves over time, we could perceive time as running with different speed in, for example, urban and rural areas of the same country. The liberalisation of women or peace movements evolved or spread with different speed in different regions. The 60s became known for many women as the decade when the control of reproduction allowed different life styles. Concerning reproductive behaviour and divorce rates a break in series compared to previous periods is observable, reduction of reproduction and diffusion of divorce throughout societies. Instead of continuous time we might speak of discrete time, in for example decades like the 60s, 70s, 80s. In retrospect “social time” seems to have passed faster in one decade than the other. We might also imagine time as growing exponentially as time². Taking into account the slowing down and successive rise again of evolution over time, the time trend might look like a rising wave (time² + time³). In econometric models testing of such hypotheses is feasible, although it is more difficult to convince reviewers of an alternative theoretical model of time.
An investigation of trends of democratic behaviour over time would need to adjust for the potential and sometime measurable return of undemocratic practices for periods. A depiction of such “social time” of democracies as an upward rising line with periodic relapses is a plausible theoretical framework. Trajectories of inwards or outwards spiralling processes are already fairly complex trends for the process of democratisation as the phenomenon to explain or the modelling of a time trend to explain the level of democratisation reached so far. Challenges of time frames for independent and dependent variables in social processes might be questioned altogether to claim that time is a spurious occurrence of events much like a process of a so-called “Brownian motion” also named white noise. In fact, not being explicit about the concept of time applied in social analyses amounts to a severe neglect. Examples of such neglect are certainly all those cross-section studies, still pervasive practice, in social sciences or opinion polls. The linear concept of time, as a chronologically processing arrow of time, is a convention useful for synchronisation of action. However, this synchronisation is already debated more forcefully with more persons being unsatisfied with the use of synchronisation as a tool to regulate our “social time” and social processes. Time zones, summer and winter times challenge our day-to-day perception of everybody living at the same time, speed or intensity. Bedtime for me, wake-up call for others, or vice versa. 
Time2
The concept of time has been dominated by “chronometry”. We used to take a look at our more or less reliable wrist watch for orientation in time. This is a cultural practice in all societies where such devices are readily available as consumer products. Before this time, even in the Europe, church bells or the sun played the role to locate people in time (Norbert Elias on civilization). Nowadays, even in remote areas of our planet the mobile phone has taken over to assist us to organize time. In the sociology of time, we observe multiple clocks. The personal time, social time – organized through laws, collective agreements, conventions or as behavioural features of us. So-called early birds have a specific awakening response of their cortisol level in their blood. For others this is delayed. We might conclude from this that different clocks are ticking within us. The societal challenge is to synchronize them. Starting time of schooling is another phenomenon of societal construction of life courses. Starting or ending time of a school day, week, month, year, adulthood, all are determined collectively and changed from time to time. Beyond points in time, there are durations in time to consider. Life spans are socially determined. Life expectancy varies a lot by social class and education levels. Therefore, at least in retrospect and keeping the duration constant across persons, life time clocks are ticking with different speeds for us as individual persons.
In the digital age and powerful search engines based on “web crawlers” we live more than ever in a global state of mind. Awareness of “global history of history” (Woolf, 2011) allows us to add perspectives from several parts of the world to our own version of history, historiographies and histories. Collective memories are continuously shaped and recreated. Due to easy reference to chronological time a perspective following decades has become a sort of collective mind map. This influences directly or indirectly through peer behaviour and preferences our own mindsets (Blanning, 2008 p.307). From a sociological point of view decades are at the crossroads of time, period and cohort effects, potentially mixing up all 3 effects. However, statistically speaking we might apply a spline function -´ to our otherwise / linear running of time. Thick description of decades like the 60s, 70s, 80s, is common practice in our communicative practices, preferences as well as behavioural features. A dialectic co-evolution of decades, one negating the other or one decade being a synthesis of 2 other decades are part of the critical assessment of lasting contributions to history through histories (Paul Ricoeur). 
T for Time
“The times they are a changing“, end of blog entry T.
We live time forward, but we seem to understand it only backwards or in retrospect. Towards the end of each year, it is common practice to look back and review the last 12 months. Then we imagine what will the future be like. Our concept of time is past, present or future oriented. In classical physics we reflect this with a depiction of time on a linear axis. However, modern concepts of time include Einstein’s relativity theory, whereby in 2 different places time may run with different speed. Similarly, quantum physics allows that the causal relationship between 2 physical states is no longer observable in a logic that follows linear time. A particle may exit in 2 states in parallel. Hard to imagine, maybe, but demonstrations of these effects are found in textbooks for pupils already. Our grasping of the world around us is enhanced through scientific rigour.
Story-telling also plays with time frames. Analepsis and prolepsis are common techniques constructing a story, a film or any form or narrative. We tend to perceive chronological time even as boring. Our memory is also playing tricks with us on time scales. When was …? Additionally, we have multiple clocks ticking away. Time to submit a report, pay taxes, until the next medication or the psychological concept of “time until death”. Strangely enough, depending on which ticking clock we focus most, our behaviour is likely to change. Mobile time management tools have been created for centuries for us to handle all this jazz (call them a watch). They all have not changed our concept of time, only the precision to measure and cramp more activities or the same one faster into our daily life. Happier since? Test your self-efficacy, more general than time management! Try meditation to slow down the pace, use an app!? I started to clone myself with a virtual presence to experience the quantum effect of my life. Podcasts are played with 1,5x the normal speed now. Rhythm and music are the remaining traditional metrics of time. Even there, John Cage’s piece “silence” managed to abandon the time reference, partly at least. Okay, time is up, next letter, please.
